Ancient Crossroads of Caucasian Societies: The Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Farmers and Hunter-Gatherers

Anthropology.net

A groundbreaking study analyzing the DNA of 131 ancient individuals across the Caucasus region has revealed a deep genetic and cultural divide between populations north and south of the Caucasus Mountains. Spanning nearly 6,000 years, this research, published in Nature1, showcases how some groups transitioned into farming societies while others maintained hunter-gatherer lifestyles.

The Caucasus: A Nexus of Early Human Civilization

Situated between Europe and Asia, the Caucasus Mountains stretch from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, encompassing modern-day Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Iran. This region, a cradle of early human innovation, served as a meeting point for diverse cultures and ecosystems.

Early Inhabitants: Tracing Ancestral Roots

Humans arrived in the Caucasus over 8,000 years ago during the Mesolithic period, as evidenced by remains in sites like Satanaj Cave in Russia (6221–6082 BCE) and Arukhlo in Georgia (5885–5476 BCE). Researchers examined genetic material spanning from the Mesolithic to the Late Bronze Age, unearthing significant patterns of interaction and adaptation among ancient populations.

Genetic Divides: Farmers in the South, Hunter-Gatherers in the North

Distinct Ancestral Lineages

Northern Caucasian populations displayed Eastern hunter-gatherer ancestry, while southern groups carried a blend of hunter-gatherer and East Anatolian farmer DNA. This genetic dichotomy highlights the influence of migrating Anatolian farmers who introduced agriculture to southern Caucasian communities.

"Initially, we found two distinct genetic ancestries among the hunter-gatherer groups north and south of the Greater Caucasus," explained Ayshin Ghalichi, lead author and PhD candidate at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.

Technological and Cultural Exchange

During the Eneolithic period (5th–4th millennia BCE), heightened interaction between these groups led to cultural and technological exchanges. Early farmers adapted innovations in animal husbandry and mobility, setting the stage for the rise of pastoralist societies in the West Eurasian steppe.

Ghalichi, A., Reinhold, S., Rohrlach, A. B., Kalmykov, A. A., Childebayeva, A., Yu, H., Aron, F., Semerau, L., Bastert-Lamprichs, K., Belinskiy, A. B., Berezina, N. Y., Berezin, Y. B., Broomandkhoshbacht, N., Buzhilova, A. P., Erlikh, V. R., Fehren-Schmitz, L., Gambashidze, I., Kantorovich, A. R., Kolesnichenko, K. B., … Haak, W. (2024). The rise and transformation of Bronze Age pastoralists in the Caucasus. Nature, 635(8040), 917–925. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08113-5

The Bronze Age: Expansion and Transformation

The Emergence of the Maykop Culture

The 4th millennium BCE marked the emergence of the Maykop culture in the North Caucasus, a fusion of northern and southern influences. This era, described as a "peak time of knowledge and technology transfer," witnessed innovations such as wheeled vehicles, mobile architecture, and early horse domestication.

"This is a peak time of knowledge and technology transfer in the North Caucasus region," noted Dr. Sabine Reinhold of the German Archaeological Institute.

The Spread of Nomadic Pastoralism

By the 3rd millennium BCE, steppe groups associated with the Yamnaya cultural complex had adopted a fully nomadic pastoralist lifestyle. These groups expanded across the Eurasian steppe, facilitating continent-wide communication networks and transforming dairy production into a cornerstone of human sustenance.

a,b, PCA of newly produced ancient individuals (black outline) and individuals from previous publications (no outline) from the third millennium bc (a), and the second millennium bc (b), projected onto 102 modern-day populations (grey dots). The dashed arrows represent observed mixture clines between the Caucasus and Steppe groups and re-emerging gene flow from the northeast. The correspondent labels and groupings are listed in Supplementary Table 5. c,d, Sankey diagram of genetic ancestry modelling for third millennium bc (c) and second millennium bc (d) individuals from this study based on temporally and geographically proximal sources. The admixture proportions (as percentages) are indicated on each ancestry flow, with sources on the left and target populations on the right, and P values for each model in brackets under the population names (Supplementary Tables 15 and 17). The suffixes in the group labels present archaeological time periods and geographical regions: MLBA, Middle–Late BA; BIA, Bronze–Iron Age; IA, Iron Age.

Social Organization: Contrasting Lifestyles

Stationary vs. Mobile Societies

The genetic analysis revealed contrasting social structures between steppe and highland communities. Steppe groups, characterized by mobility, exhibited limited biological relatedness, suggesting decentralized family units. In contrast, stationary Caucasian societies showed higher consanguinity, reflecting tightly knit familial bonds.

"The more stationary Caucasus groups showed higher levels of consanguinity... whereas the steppe groups revealed very few of such connections," the researchers concluded.

A Legacy of Innovation and Adaptation

The study underscores the dynamic interplay of migration, adaptation, and innovation that shaped the Caucasus region. From the introduction of farming to the rise of nomadic pastoralism, these ancient societies laid the groundwork for cultural and technological developments that resonate through history.

Additional Related Studies

1. Pastoral Mobility and the Formation of Complex Settlements in the Middle Bronze Age Şərur Valley, Azerbaijan
   Investigates pastoralist mobility and its influence on settlement patterns during the Middle Bronze Age in Azerbaijan.
   Source: Academia.edu.

2. At the Onset of Settled Pastoralism: Implications of Archaeozoological and Isotope Analyses from Bronze Age Sites in the North Caucasus
   Explores transitions to settled pastoralism through isotopic and zooarchaeological evidence, highlighting societal transformations in the North Caucasus.
   Source: Quaternary International.

3. Isotopic Perspectives on Pastoralist Mobility in the Late Bronze Age South Caucasus
   Uses isotopic analysis to study patterns of mobility among Late Bronze Age pastoralists, shedding light on their adaptation strategies.
   Source: Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.

4. Emergence and Intensification of Dairying in the Caucasus and Eurasian Steppes
   Explores the evolution and intensification of dairy production among pastoralist societies, focusing on Bronze Age cultural shifts in the Caucasus.
   Source: Nature Ecology & Evolution.

5. The Politics of Pasture: The Organization of Pastoral Practices and Political Authority in the Late Bronze Age South Caucasus
   Analyzes how pastoral practices shaped political authority and community organization in the South Caucasus during the Late Bronze Age.
   Source: ProQuest.

6. Mountain Archaeology of the Bronze Age Caucasus
   Discusses the role of high-mountain environments in the development of Bronze Age pastoralism and the associated socio-political structures.
   Source: De Gruyter.

7. Pastoralism and Emergent Complex Settlement in the Middle Bronze Age, Azerbaijan
   Focuses on isotopic analyses to trace mobility strategies and their role in the formation of complex settlements in the Caucasus.
   Source: American Journal of Physical Anthropology.

8. The Transcaucasian “Periphery” in the Bronze Age: A Preliminary Formulation
   Examines the development of Bronze Age societies in the Transcaucasian region, emphasizing ecological and cultural interconnections.
   Source: Springer.

9. Horseback Riding and Bronze Age Pastoralism in the Eurasian Steppes
   Investigates the introduction of horseback riding and its impact on mobility and pastoral practices in the Eurasian steppes, with insights into the Caucasus.
   Source: De Gruyter.

10. Late Bronze Age Power Dynamics in Southern Caucasia: A Community Perspective
    Provides a community-focused analysis of political landscapes and power dynamics in southern Caucasia during the Late Bronze Age.
    Source: ProQuest.

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Ghalichi, A., Reinhold, S., Rohrlach, A. B., Kalmykov, A. A., Childebayeva, A., Yu, H., Aron, F., Semerau, L., Bastert-Lamprichs, K., Belinskiy, A. B., Berezina, N. Y., Berezin, Y. B., Broomandkhoshbacht, N., Buzhilova, A. P., Erlikh, V. R., Fehren-Schmitz, L., Gambashidze, I., Kantorovich, A. R., Kolesnichenko, K. B., … Haak, W. (2024). The rise and transformation of Bronze Age pastoralists in the Caucasus. Nature, 635(8040), 917–925. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08113-5